Cross-cultural validity of the CAMI 
the various subdimensions within the agency and means-ends beliefs provide unique sources of 
information regarding various aspects of children's reasonings about the domain of school 
performance (see e.g., Karasawa, Little, Miyashita, Mashima, & Azuma, 1995; Little & Lopez, 
1995; Little et al., 1995; Lopez & Little, 1995b; Stetsenko et al., 1995; Oettingen, et al., 1994). 
Such an approach allows one to identify what children think about general contingencies in the 
domain of school performance, about their own role in utilizing these effective means, and 
about an overall likelihood of achieving or avoiding a certain outcome. 
Socio-cultural Determinants of Children's Perceived Control 
In most previous studies on performance-related beliefs, researchers have rarely taken a 
cross-cultural approach. For example, the main focus of Western research has been on 
individual cognitive development as a primary factor influencing and shaping children's 
perceived control. Clearly, particular cognitive milestones have to be attained before a child 
becomes able to exert control, perceive it, and form beliefs about it. As research has shown, 
these control-related abilities emerge at certain stages of cognitive development and have 
necessary age-dependent preconditions, such as the capacity to understand logical inverse 
relations, see one's performance from a detached perspective, and relate temporally separate 
outcomes to one another (see e.g. Nicholls, 1978, 1979). 
However, there is growing interest in cross-cultural comparisons in the field of perceived 
control, self-efficacy, and other self-related concepts. As Weisz (1990) notes, once certain 
cognitive milestones have been attained, further development of perceived control may be 
determined by a diverse array of non-cognitive factors, ranging from affective states 
(Lewinsohn, Mischel, Chaplin, & Barton, 1980) to social stereotypes (Bandura, 1977), to 
collective value systems and/or to social ideologies (e.g., Meyer, 1990; Rozenholtz & Simpson, 
1984; Schooler, 1990). 
The effects of some concrete aspects of the socio-cultural environment on self-conceptions 
have been investigated in several studies. Findings show, for example, a crucial impact of 
different work experience (Inkeles, 1983), and type of education on beliefs about corresponding 
domains of performance (Kohn & Schooler, 1983; Rozenholtz & Rozenholtz, 1981). These 
studies suggest that the development of the ability to evaluate one's own potential to control